Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theoretical Advances and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries

“The value concept, more than any other, should occupy a central position . . . able to unify the apparently diverse interests of all the sciences concerned with human behavior.” These words, proclaiming the centrality of the value concept, were written by a psychologist (Rokeach, 1973, p. 3), but similar stands have been taken by sociologists (e.g., Williams, 1968) and anthropologists (e.g., Kluckhohn, 1951). These theorists view values as the criteria people use to select and justify actions and to evaluate people (including the self) and events. We, too, adopt this view of values as criteria rather than as qualities inherent in objects. This article discusses work that is part of a larger project intended to explore the importance of values in a wide variety of contexts. The project addresses three broad questions about values. First, how are the value priorities of individuals affected by their social experiences? That is, how do the common experiences people have, because of their shared locations in the social structure (their education, age, gender, occupation, etc.), influence their value priorities? And, how do individuals’ unique experiences (trauma, relations with parents, immigration, etc.) affect their value priorities? Second, how do the value priorities held by individuals affect their behavioral orientations and choices? That is, how do value priorities influence ideologies, attitudes, and actions in the political, religious, environmental, and other domains?